Fiber-optic integrated membrane reactor

ABSTRACT

A reactor for water splitting or water treatment includes a first electrode, a second electrode electrically coupled to the first electrode, and a proton exchange membrane separating the first electrode and the second electrode. The first electrode includes a first optical fiber coated with a photocatalytic material.

This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/499,433 entitled “FIBER-OPTIC INTEGRATED MEMBRANE REACTOR” filed on Apr. 27, 2017, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application 62/328,352 entitled “A FIBER-OPTIC INTEGRATED MEMBRANE REACTOR FOR PHOTOCATALYTIC WATER SPLITTING AND WATER TREATMENT” filed on Apr. 27, 2016, both of which are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety.

STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT INTEREST

This invention was made with government support under CBET 1132779 and EEC-1449500 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention.

TECHNICAL FIELD

This invention relates to a reactor for photocatalytic water splitting and water treatment.

BACKGROUND

Photocatalytic water splitting is the photon-driven electrolysis of water to yield hydrogen (H₂) and oxygen (O₂). FIG. 1 depicts photocatalytic electric cell 100, including anode 102, cathode 104, proton exchange membrane 106, and light source 108. Anode 102 is photocatalytic. Light source 108 initiates oxidation at anode 102, yielding oxygen gas (O₂) and protons (H⁺). Reduction occurs at cathode 104, where the protons are reduced to yield hydrogen gas (H₂). Hydrogen gas can be used in industrial processing or as a mobile fuel source. However, development of commercial water splitting reactors has been limited by cost associated with process inefficiencies.

SUMMARY

Devices and methods for photocatalytic water splitting and water treatment are described. In particular, an integrated reactor design includes photocatalyst-coated optical fibers and photon exchange membrane (PEM) elements incorporated into high surface area, high flux modules for production of hydrogen and purification of water. The reactor design allows for use of natural and artificial light sources together with immobilized photocatalysts tuned to absorb photons. Photocatalyst-coated optical fibers allow for illumination of a large surface area of the photocatalyst via light transmitted through the optical fibers. Compact water-splitting modules are formed by including hollow-fiber PEM elements in various configurations. Decoupling of light harvesting and irradiation from hydrogen generation via using fiber optics to introduce light into a compact water-splitting module provides an efficient means to harvest gases (hydrogen, oxygen) that evolve from the catalyst.

In a first general aspect, a reactor for water splitting or water treatment includes a first electrode, a second electrode electrically coupled to the first electrode, and a proton exchange membrane separating the first electrode and the second electrode. The first electrode includes a first optical fiber coated with a photocatalytic material.

Implementations of the first general aspect may include one or more of the following features.

The first optical fiber may be coated with a conductive material. The second electrode may include a second optical fiber, and the second optical fiber may be coated with a conductive material. The second electrode may be in the form of a flexible layer. The proton exchange membrane may be hollow, and the first electrode may be positioned in the proton exchange membrane.

A light source may be coupled to the first optical fiber. The light source may be an artificial light source. The light source may be a light emitting diode. The first electrode may be configured to be coupled to a sunlight-collecting device or to a laser.

The proton exchange membrane may include a first layer and a second layer, and the first electrode may be positioned between the first layer and the second layer.

In a second general aspect, a reactor for water splitting or water treatment includes a reservoir configured to hold water, a multiplicity of hollow fiber proton exchange membranes positioned in the reservoir, a first electrode positioned in each of the hollow fiber proton exchange membranes, where each first electrode includes a first optical fiber coated with a photocatalytic material, and one or more second electrodes positioned in the reservoir, each second electrode electrically coupled to at least one of the first electrodes.

Implementations of the second general aspect may include one or more of the following features.

The photocatalytic material may include titanium dioxide. The first optical fiber may be coated with a conductive material. The conductive material may include indium tin oxide.

A light source may be coupled to each of the first electrodes. The light source may be a light emitting diode.

In a third general aspect, a reactor includes a flexible assembly having a first electrode layer, a second electrode layer, and a third electrode layer. The first electrode layer includes a multiplicity of first electrodes positioned between a first proton exchange membrane layer and a second proton exchange membrane layer. Each of the first electrodes includes an optical fiber coated with a photocatalytic material. The second electrode layer includes a multiplicity of second electrodes positioned between a third proton exchange membrane layer and a fourth proton exchange membrane layer. Each of the second electrodes includes an optical fiber coated with a photocatalytic material. The third electrode layer is positioned between and electrically coupled to the first electrode layer and the second electrode layer. The third electrode layer is a flexible conductive material.

Implementations of the third general aspect may include one or more of the following features.

The flexible assembly may be wound around a porous conduit. The reactor may include a water inlet and a water outlet.

Thus, particular embodiments have been described. Variations, modifications, and enhancements of the described embodiments and other embodiments can be made based on what is described and illustrated. In addition, one or more features of one or more embodiments may be combined. The details of one or more implementations and various features and aspects are set forth in the accompanying drawings, the description, and the claims below.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 depicts a photocatalytic electric cell.

FIG. 2A depicts an exemplary photocatalytic reactor element. FIG. 2B depicts an exemplary photocatalytic reactor.

FIG. 3 depicts an exemplary photocatalytic reactor module including a multiplicity of photocatalytic reactor elements.

FIG. 4 depicts an exemplary spiral wound photocatalytic reactor.

FIG. 5 depicts simulation of biodegradation by growing phototrophs in soils through delivery of natural sunlight to the subsurface.

FIG. 6 depicts the sand packed optical fiber reactor (SPOFR) of Example 1.

FIG. 7 shows dissolved oxygen levels at the inlet and outlet during bioreactor operation described in Example 1.

FIG. 8 shows evanescent wave energy with respect to radial distance from the optical fiber surface as a function of photon incident angle for Example 2.

FIG. 9 shows light intensity absorbed in photocatalyst coated optical fibers.

FIG. 10 shows light intensity absorbed in photocatalyst coated optical fibers with fixed coating mass and increasing optical fiber dip coating length.

FIG. 11 shows degradation kinetics for methylene blue at different TiO₂ doses and coating regimes.

FIG. 12 shows quantum efficiency, Φ, of methylene blue bleaching under photolytic and photocatalytic conditions.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

FIG. 2A depicts photocatalytic reactor element 200 including anode 202, cathode 204, proton exchange membrane (PEM) 206, and light source 208. Anode 202 is formed by a coating a portion of optical fiber 210 with conductive photocatalytic coating 212. Cathode 204 may be in the form of an optical fiber with a conductive coating (e.g., platinum, carbon nanotube/graphene on carbon cloth or platinum mesh, or the like). PEM 206 is a hollow fiber membrane. During operation, anode 202, cathode 204, and PEM 206 are immersed in water. In some embodiments, photocatalytic reactor element 200 includes multiple anodes in PEM 206. For simplicity, FIG. 2A does not depict photocatalytic reactor element 200 immersed in water. However, operation of photocatalytic reactor element 200 is described with respect to FIG. 2A as if it were. In embodiments that include multiple photocatalytic reactor elements 200, the number of anodes 202 may exceed the number of cathodes 204. That is, two or more photocatalytic reactor elements 200 may share a single cathode.

Conductive photocatalytic coating 212 includes a photocatalyst as well as a conductive material. An example of a suitable photocatalyst is titanium dioxide (TiO₂). An example of a suitable conductive material is indium tin oxide (ITO). Conductive photocatalytic coating 212 on optical fiber 210 provides a large photocatalytic surface area for light transmitted from light source 208 through the optical fiber. Photons absorbed by the photocatalyst induce a current along the surface of optical fiber 210. The conductive material conveys the current along optical fiber 210 to cathode via circuit 214.

As depicted in FIG. 2A, water is oxidized at anode 202 to yield oxygen gas and protons. PEM 206, a flexible, hollow fiber, separates anode 202 from cathode 204 and allows protons to migrate from the anode to the cathode to achieve charge neutrality. In one example, PEM 206 has an internal diameter of 2.2 mm (available from Permapure, USA). Protons react at cathode 204 to produce hydrogen gas. The hydrogen gas may be collected and stored as an energy source or for use in industrial chemical or water treatment processes.

Light source 208 may be a natural or artificial light source. Various light sources can be used to provide photons, and launched into the fiber optics that enter into the modules. For example, natural sunlight can be concentrated using reflective surfaces. Light emitting diodes (LEDs) and lasers are examples of artificial light sources. Suitable light sources can be polychromatic or monochromatic, based upon the absorbance properties of the photocatalyst. Multiple light sources may be used simultaneously, for different fibers, or to span daytime-nighttime solar light availability.

The photocatalyst and the light source may be selected to maximize photon absorption. As depicted in FIG. 2A, light source 208 is a light emitting diode (LED) (e.g., 318 nm LED available from SETI, USA). Radial light emission along the length of optical fiber 210 can be controlled by imparting a selected refractive index on the surface of the optical fiber. In some examples, imparting a selected refractive index on the surface of optical fiber 210 includes sheathing the optical fiber with a material such as glass, polymer, or the photocatalyst itself. Optical fiber 210 provides a high surface area for reaction, and the close proximity of the optical fiber to the PEM reduces the diffusion distance for protons in the water, thereby increasing the overall rate and efficiency of reactor performance.

During operation of photocatalytic reactor element 200, light from light source 208 is provided to (launched into) optical fiber 210 of photocatalytic reactor element. Photons exit optical fiber 210 and excite electrons in conductive photocatalytic coating 212 on the optical fiber. The thickness and composition of the conductive photocatalytic coating influences the wavelength of light absorbed, the extent of electron recombination, and the anodic potential. Electrons flow along the surface of the conductive photocatalytic coating 212 to cathode 204 via conductor 214. Water can be split at anode 202 to produce oxygen and protons. The protons diffuse through PEM 206 and produce hydrogen at cathode 204 using photogenerated electrons. Gases are collected at the top of photocatalytic reactor element 200.

FIG. 2B is a cross-sectional view an embodiment of photocatalytic reactor 220 with anode 202, cathode 204, PEM 206, and light source 208. PEM 206 is a hollow fiber membrane. Optical fiber 210, coated with conductive photocatalytic coating 212, is coupled to anode 202. Photons exit optical fiber 210 and excite electrons in conductive photocatalytic coating 212 on the optical fiber. Electrons flow along the surface of conductive photocatalytic coating 212 to cathode 204 via conductor 214. Anode 202 and cathode 204 are positioned in water 222 contained in housing or reservoir 224. Oxygen gas exits photocatalytic reactor 220 via outlet 226 proximate anode 202, and hydrogen gas exits the photocatalytic reactor via outlet 228 proximate cathode 204.

FIG. 3 depicts exemplary photocatalytic reactor 300. Photocatalytic reactor 300 includes a multiplicity of photocatalytic reactor elements 200. In some examples, photocatalytic reactor 300 includes tens or hundreds of photocatalytic reactor elements 200. Photocatalytic reactor 300 may be implemented as a module in a larger photocatalytic reactor system. In some cases, the number of anodes in photocatalytic reactor 300 is equal to the number of cathodes 204 in the photocatalytic reactor. In certain cases, the number of anodes in photocatalytic reactor 300 exceeds the number of cathodes 204 in the photocatalytic reactor, thereby reducing the use of expensive cathode materials. Cathodes 204 are typically positioned in close proximity to the anodes, thereby increasing reactor efficiency. Photocatalytic reactor elements 200, including cathodes 204, are positioned in water in housing 302. Housing 302 may include reservoir 304 and cover 306.

During operation of photocatalytic reactor 300, water is provided to housing via water inlet 308. The water may be provided to the hollow portion of PEMs 206. Water exits photocatalytic reactor 300 via water outlet 310. Light from light sources 208 is provided (launched) into optical fibers of photocatalytic reactor elements 200. Photons exit the optical fibers and excite electrons in the conductive photocatalytic coating on the optical fibers. The thickness and composition of the conductive photocatalytic coating influences the wavelength of light absorbed, the extent of electron recombination, and the anodic potential. Electrons flow along the surface of the conductive photocatalytic coating to cathodes 204 via circuits (not shown). Water can be split at the anodes (inside photocatalytic reactor elements 200) to produce oxygen and protons. The protons diffuse through PEMs 206 and produce hydrogen at cathodes 204 using photogenerated electrons. Hydrogen is collected via conduit 312 at the top of photocatalytic reactor 300.

FIG. 4 depicts spiral wound photocatalytic reactor 400. Spiral wound photocatalytic reactor 400 includes anodes 402 and cathode 404. Anodes 402 may be similar to anodes 202 described with respect to photocatalytic reactor element 200. Anodes 402 serve as spacers between PEM layers 406, and cathode 404 is positioned between two anode layers to yield a layered assembly in the form of a flat sheet. Cathode 404 is flexible, such that the layered assembly may be wound around porous conduit 408 to yield a compact module. Hydrogen produced along the cathode exits spiral wound photocatalytic reactor 400 through porous conduit 408. Water may be provided to PEM layers 406 at first end 410 of spiral wound photocatalytic reactor 400 via an influent fitting, and water and oxygen gas may exit the PEM layers at second end 412 of the spiral wound photocatalytic reactor via an effluent fitting. During operation, spiral wound photocatalytic reactor 400 is positioned such that water entering the reactor flows downward through the PEM layers (e.g., via gravity), and hydrogen gas evolved at cathode 404 bubbles up and is collected at the top of the reactor. Water flow across the PEM layers provides turbulence that improves evolution of hydrogen or other gases from the cathode.

Photocatalytic reactors described herein may be used to achieve water purification. For example, photo-generated electrons (and protons) may be used to reduce oxidized pollutants (e.g., nitrate). Water flow may be increased through the reactor, and a membrane may be selected to function as a PEM and a particulate/molecular cutoff filter to remove particulate, colloidal, and/or dissolved ions. In some cases, the photocatalyst may be selected to produce oxidants (e.g., hydroxyl radicals), to oxidize organic pollutants and/or pathogens. Single or multiple light sources may be used to deliver light of different wavelengths into different fibers. Combinations of uncoated radial emitting fibers with UV light sources may be used for pathogen inactivation, while optical fibers coated with different catalysts create different bandgaps appropriate for destroying different classes of inorganic and organic pollutants in water.

EXAMPLES Example 1: Remediation of Polluted Groundwater

Bacteria degrade organic groundwater pollutants (e.g., trichloroethylene, methyl tert-butyl ether) when supplied with electron donors (e.g., organic substances) and acceptors (e.g., oxygen). However, the inadequate supply and challenges in delivering oxygen to microbes create an inactive environment with incomplete bioremediation. Biodegradation was simulated by growing phototrophs in soils through delivery of natural sunlight to the subsurface, as depicted in FIG. 5 . With sufficient light, phototrophs convert carbon dioxide into cellular materials and generate oxygen. Oxygen acts as an electron acceptor to achieve contaminant biodegradation. Cellular and extracellular organic material provide a substrate for a diverse group of heterotrophs to aid in pollutant degradation. Thus, carbon present in water and soils can be cycled between inorganic and organic forms in a sustainable strategy, rather than continuous addition of electron donors (e.g., methanol).

Photosynthesis allows organisms to biologically produce oxygen. However, sunlight does not typically penetrate soil beyond ˜10 mm. Therefore, one factor in using phototrophs in groundwater remediation is delivering light the treatment zone. This example demonstrates subsurface phototroph growth using radially emitting optical fibers to direct light to the subsurface. Oxygen was produced biologically to first enable micro-organism growth and then degrade groundwater pollutants. A white light source was connected to a polymer covered optical fiber that radially emitted light along its length, and the optical fiber was inserted into a packed soil column. The polymer layer allowed the fiber to diffuse light radially along the soil column. Changes in dissolved oxygen (DO) and microbial culture functional structure were monitored when the light was provided continuously and in on-off cycles.

The ability to deliver oxygen and modulate redox conditions on diurnal cycles using solar light to remediate polluted groundwater was demonstrated. Visible light was delivered into the subsurface using uncoated, radially emitting optical fibers. Phototrophic organisms grew near the optical fiber in a packed sand column, and heterotrophic bacteria dominated at longer radial distances from the fiber, presumably supported by soluble microbial products produced by the phototrophs. When applying light in on-off cycles, dissolved oxygen (DO) varied from super saturation levels of >15 mg DO/L in the presence of light to undersaturated conditions of <5 mg DO/L in the absence of light. The redox changes in response to light demonstrated biological delivery of oxygen into the subsurface and supported a diverse microbial community for degrading organic or inorganic ground water pollutants.

Photobioreactor Design and Monitoring

A Sand Packed Optical Fiber Reactor (SPOFR), 70 cm long by 50.8 mm diameter PVC single column, was packed with 61 cm playground sand, as depicted in FIG. 6 . A sponge scouring pad and a layer of granite were placed above and below the playground sand to prevent uneven water flow. Prior to the test, playground sand was mixed with photosynthetic organisms from Tempe Town Lake, Arizona, grown in BG-11, a standard biological growth medium. The composition of BG-11 is provided in Table 1. A 5 mm plastic optical fiber coated in white polymer to emit light radially was positioned through the center of the column and was connected to an artificial visible light source (Encore Fiber Optic Illuminator model AR150CM-4-120M-D-CW with a 150W M type Lamp). Flow rate through the column was 100 mL/day, pumped from reactor bottom to top using a Cole Parmer Masterflex Peristaltic Pump (Vernon Hills, Ill.). An average light intensity of 20 μmol/s-m² in the visible spectrum (400-700 nm) was emitted through the column continuously for 7 days and then in a 24 hour on-light off-light cycle for 8 days to represent a diurnal light cycle. DO exiting the sand column in response to the light cycles was measured. A dissolved oxygen meter (YSI 550A, Yellow Springs, Ohio) measured influent DO by continuous stir of the inlet batch and effluent DO by inserting the meter in the air-tight flow path. A 50 mL sample was collected for phosphate and nitrate analysis through a 50× dilution using a dual anion/cation ion chromatography instrument (ICS-5000, Dionex).

TABLE 1 BG-11 composition Compound mg/L Boric acid 2.86 Manganese chloride tetrahydrate 1.81 Zinc sulfate heptahydrate 0.22 Copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate 0.079 Colbalt(II) chloride hexahydrate 0.05 Sodium molybdate 0.4 Dipotassium phosphate 30.5 Magnesium sulfate helptahydrate 73.5 Calcium chloride 36.0 Ferric ammonium citrate 6 Sodium nitrate 750 Sodium carbonate 20

Microbial Analysis

The density and biological diversity of bacteria along radial and lateral locations in the soil was quantified at the end of the test. The SPOFR was cut into 8 cross sections of 76.2 mm in height. As depicted in FIG. 6 , the six center sections were numbered 1-6 and used for microbial analysis. Enumeration of phototrophic and non-phototrophic microorganisms was performed on sections 2, 4, and 6 to determine the radial and vertical distribution of the microorganisms. One gram of the homogenously mixed cross-sectional area was sampled and diluted in 10 mL of water and serially plated onto BG-11 agar plates. The plates were incubated with the same light intensity as the reactor at room temperature. Phototrophic and heterotrophic colonies were counted after incubation for 5 days. DNA was extracted from sections 1, 3, and 5 from 0.25 g samples using a MoBio PowerSoil® DNA Isolation Kit. Microbial community amplicon sequencing using primers 515F and 806R for the V4 hyper-variable region of the 16S rRNA gene was performed using the Illumina MiSeq platform at the Microbiome Analysis Laboratory in the Swette Center for Environmental Biotechnology at Arizona State University.

Oxygen Profiles

FIG. 7 shows the effectiveness of using fiber optics to increase oxygen in a subsurface environment. During days 1-6, continuous light was provided to the reactor filled with water at room temperature (22° C.). Oxygen saturation at 22° C. is 8.7 mg/L. The oxygen concentration of the reactor increased by 7 mg/L to a super-saturated level of 15 mg/L. During light on/off cycles, the DO fluctuated from over saturation to under saturation in response to light delivery. Average DO levels for light on and off cycles were 12.3 mg/L and 7.9 mg/L, respectively.

Increasing DO upon light application is indicative of a photosynthetically active environment. Decreasing DO during off cycles is indicative of consumption of oxygen for aerobic respiration, by photo- or heterotrophic organisms. When no light was supplied to the reactor, DO decreased to 1.5-2 mg/L. This indicates that the oxygen increase in the soil column corresponded to the light availability. During light application, photons promoted photosynthesis, which increased oxygen at a faster rate than the heterotrophs consume. When there was no light, the heterotrophs consumed most of the oxygen.

High levels of nitrate and phosphate were used in the BG-11 media. Changes in these nutrients were additional indicators of biological activity. Nitrogen decreased by an average of 50% from 526 mg/L to 260 mg/L in the initial 5 days of testing then stabilized at a 10% decrease of 70-80 mg/L. Phosphate decreased by 10.5 mg/L (day 4) to 11.7 mg/L (day 12) consistently throughout in both the light-on and light-off cycles. Both nitrogen and phosphorous are required for biomass growth, and the average consumption in these nutrients occurred at a ratio 18.6 mg-N/mg-P, which is close to the redfield ratios in soil and soil bacteria. Nitrate can also act as an electron acceptor. As the oxygen level in the reactor increased, the nitrate consumption decreased.

A control reactor without an optical fiber or light resulted in a 79% decrease in DO (effluent column DO of 1.6 mg/L). Table 2 summarizes the decrease in nitrate, phosphate, and oxygen during the test days. The inlet nitrate and phosphate decreased by 1.5% and 15%, respectively, indicating that the majority of the nutrient reduction was microbially induced and not accounted for by sand adsorption. Collectively, the SPOFR demonstrated production of DO in situ using phototrophic organisms with continuous flow through a simulated groundwater system.

TABLE 2 Reduction in nitrate, phosphate, and oxygen concentrations in a control with no light or photosynthetic organisms Concentrations Control Day (mg/L) Inlet 1 2 3 4 Nitrate 526.7 446.7 450.2 445.6 448.3 Phosphate 12.1 12.0 12.1 11.9 11.8 Oxygen 7.6 3.2 2.9 1.6 2.1

Biological Profiles

The microbial community profile, determined by plating and high throughput sequencing, illustrated the success of the SPOFR in sustaining a symbiotic community. Both phototrophs and heterotrophs were present. The average density of the heterotrophic microorganisms was 1.19×10⁵±2.34×10; CFU/g of sand for all of the samples. The phototrophic microorganism density was consistent throughout the column at 1.36×10⁵±2.28×10³ CFU/g of sand. Radial samples revealed 3.02×10⁵ CFU/g of phototrophs in the inner radius and a consistent 7.42×10⁴ CFU/g beyond 7.62 mm radial distance from the fiber. Table 3 lists microbial density plating results.

TABLE 3 Microbial density plating results Microbial Density Standard Standard (CFU/g-sand) Phototrophs deviation Heterotrophs deviation 2 1.5E+05 6.5E+03 1.6E+05 5.3E+03 4 1.0E+05 6.9E+03 9.8E+04 2.6E+03 6 1.5E+05 9.1E+03 1.1E+05 6.0E+03 Effluent 0.0E+00 0.0E+00 9.5E+04 8.9E+03 4A 3.0E+05 3.8E+03 1.3E+05 1.9E+03 4B 7.4E+04 8.9E+03 1.4E+05 2.6E+03 4C 7.5E+04 2.6E+03 9.6E+04 7.4E+03

The relative abundance of the microorganisms as determined by plating and high throughput sequencing illustrates that the majority of the photosynthetic growth occurred within the first 7.62 mm of the radial profile in both the spread plate and the DNA extraction. The photosynthetic organisms beyond 7.62 mm from the fiber are most likely due to mixing from the water flow. There were no measured photosynthetic organisms in the reactor effluent, suggesting that the photosynthetic microorganisms were tightly bound to the sand inside the bioreactor. The light delivered through the reactor dropped exponentially along the fiber length from inlet to outlet, from 20 μmol/s-m² at 0 m to 10 μmol/s-m² at 1.52 m. The higher microorganism count in the top and bottom of the reactor is due to higher light exposure and higher nutrient exposure, respectively.

An average of 60,000 taxonomy counts was found per sample in the SPOFR. Repeatability of the samples from the same area and the relative abundance of each organism are listed in Table 4. The heterotrophs range from nitrogen consuming (Nitrospirae) phylum to oxygen consuming phyla and are widely distributed in the environment. The phototrophs within the bioreactor were a mixture of algae (i.e., Acuodesmus obliquus and Chlorotetraedron incuss) and cyanobacteria (Cyneccoccus spp.). Overall, the microbial community demonstrated a higher spatial distribution in the inner radius of the column. This demonstrates that the optical fibers successfully increased the oxygen to supersaturation levels (15 mg/L) throughout a packed sand reactor. The oxygen increase in the reactor allowed for a syntrophic relationship and growth between the phototrophs and heterotrophs.

TABLE 4 Microbial distribution from DNA extraction in ten samples Organism 1_(a) 1_(b) 3A_(a) 3A_(b) 3B_(a) 3B_(b) 3C_(a) 3C_(b) 5_(a) 5_(b) Cyanobacteria (all) 51.2% 54.4% 56.4% 62.9% 22.7% 20.4% 23.5% 25.1% 36.9% 34.9% Cyanobacteria (other) 20.6% 21.9% 3.3% 3.7% 12.1% 10.9% 13.4% 14.3% 5.6% 5.3% Cyanobacteria synecccoccus 19.2% 20.4% 45.2% 50.4% 3.3% 3.0% 0.9% 1.0% 21.3% 20.2% Algae (Acutodesmus Obliquus) 6.6% 7.0% 4.4% 4.9% 6.4% 5.7% 8.5% 9.1% 6.8% 6.5% Algae (Chlorotetraedron Incuss) 4.8% 5.1% 3.5% 3.9% 0.9% 0.8% 0.7% 0.8% 3.1% 3.0% Bacteroidetes 20.8% 18.6% 16.9% 16.3% 25.0% 29.8% 33.2% 29.5% 26.6% 26.4% Proteobacteria 15.9% 15.3% 15.5% 12.0% 24.2% 22.4% 22.9% 19.9% 19.6% 23.5% Nitrospirae 0.5% 1.0% 2.0% 1.6% 7.8% 6.5% 1.7% 5.8% 4.3% 4.9% Actinobacteria 1.1% 1.4% 2.5% 1.3% 5.0% 5.2% 4.3% 4.4% 3.7% 3.1% Verrucomicrobia 5.0% 3.5% 1.6% 1.5% 4.7% 6.8% 4.7% 5.3% 2.6% 3.0% Planctomycetes 0.7% 0.9% 1.6% 1.0% 2.7% 2.0% 3.2% 3.2% 1.6% 1.7% Armatimonadetes 1.5% 1.6% 1.1% 0.6% 4.4% 3.0% 2.5% 3.0% 2.3% 3.2%

Thus, radial emitting optical fibers have been used to deliver light into the subsurface and increase DO due to a biological response to light stimulation. The nutrient consumption provided evidence for biological reactions. Microbial community sequencing indicated that the organisms present in the reactor included both heterotrophs, responsible for the consumption of nitrate and phosphate, as well as phototrophs, responsible for the production in oxygen through the column. There was no reduction in flowrate across the column, suggesting soil clogging may not be an issue.

Example 2: UV-LED Driven Photocatalyst Coated Optical Fiber System

A 318 nm ultraviolet light emitting diode (UV-LED) driven photocatalyst coated optical fiber (UV-LED-OF) system demonstrated in situ activation of photocatalysts by direct photon-electron transfer. Photocatalyst immobilized on coated optical fibers eliminated the need to recover suspended photocatalysts from slurry suspensions, and photonic energy losses due to incident infrared heat dissipation, light transmittance through a liquid phase, or light scattering by suspended slurry photocatalysts were minimized.

The capacity of a UV-LED-OF system with a 318 nm LED to transform methylene blue (MB), a probe pollutant, was evaluated considering both optical fiber coating thickness and photocatalyst attachment method. Performance was compared with that of an equivalent-mass slurry catalyst system. Predicted and measured photon fluence longitudinally through the optical fibers decreased as a function of fiber length and mass of TiO₂ externally coated on the fiber. Thinner coatings of TiO₂ on the optical fibers led to faster removal rates of MB from solution, presumably related with proximal distance between reactive species produced by TiO₂ and MB in the solution. Dip-coated fibers with pre-synthesized TiO₂ (i.e., electrostatic attachment) achieved faster MB removal than fibers coated with TiO₂ using sol-gel and calcination techniques. TiO₂ attached to optical fibers degraded MB faster and achieved a 5× higher quantum efficiency than an equivalent mass of TiO₂ suspended in a slurry solution.

Photonic quantum efficiency was quantified as a function of optical fiber coating thickness and photocatalyst synthesis and attachment methodologies. Electrostatic attachment on optical fibers of preformed TiO₂ was compared to sol-gel precipitation and calcination directly on optical fibers. Experimental evidence utilizing methylene blue as a probe compound was also supported by modeling.

Experimental Methods and Materials

Experiments with UV-LED-OF systems were conducted in a 10 mL glass batch reactor. This volume was selected to enable in situ quantification of methylene blue (Sigma Aldrich) in a spectrophotometer (HACH DR5000) at 664 nm (95000 M⁻¹·cm⁻¹). This eliminated the need to remove sample volumes from the reactor for analysis. A 318 nm UV-LED (SETi, UV-TOP) utilized 5 V input at <3 mA was mounted above the reactor. In most cases, a single fiber was polished and attached to the LED. Optical fibers, LED mounts, and additional polishing/stripping equipment were purchased from Thorlabs: FT1000UMT; 0.39 NA, Ø1000 μm Core Multimode Optical Fiber, High-OH for 300-1200 nm, TECS Clad. Optical fibers were prepared by stripping the buffer and cladding, assembly into a quick-connect SMA connector, and polishing the optically active surfaces. Polished fibers were then coated utilizing either electrostatic dip-coating with preformed TiO₂ (P25 or P90 obtained from Evonik) or sol-gel synthesis methodologies to achieve different layering thickness and surface homogeneity. The mass of the TiO₂ coating layers on the optical fibers was measured gravimetrically by the weight of the optical fibers before and after certain numbers of dip coating cycles (0-20 coating cycles). The surface morphology of the TiO₂ coating layers was obtained by scanning electron microscopy (SEM/EDX: Philips XL30-EDAX). The thickness of the TiO₂ coating layers on the optical fibers was obtained from SEM images of vertically oriented fibers.

Fiber Stripping and Preparation for Catalyst Deposition

11 cm fiber segments were cut utilizing a ceramic square or ruby blade to achieve a clear cut of the fiber. To remove the TECS cladding and buffer underneath, the fibers were soaked in acetone for 24 hours and the cladding was manually removed. As needed, after a further 24 hours of soaking in acetone, the remaining cladding (a clear coating around the fibers that maintains total internal reflection of the light) was stripped manually. The fibers were then left to soak in water to remove any remaining acetone residual as the catalyst solution was prepared.

Fiber Mounting and Polishing for Enhanced Light Transmission

Fibers were fixed to the metal connector (SMO5SMA, Thor Labs) utilizing heat shrink wrap (TT100 1/16″ and ⅛″, 0.5 cm and 1.5 cm, respectively, Tech-Tron) placed (1) between the stripped fiber and the connector and (2) overlaid on the combined fiber-connector. Heated air was utilized to shrink wrap the components to flush-fit and allowed to cool prior to further treatment or use. Thor Labs ruby blade was utilized to gently score the fiber and cleave along the mechanical axis of the fiber to achieve smooth ends for polishing. Mounted, cleaved fibers were then polished utilizing (D50SMA, Thor Labs) polishing assembly with fiber polishing paper (LF30P, LF5P, LF03P). Fiber microscope was used to determine uniformity of clarity at the fiber tip.

LED mounting to the optical fiber employed a butt-coupling method of direct contact between the LED quartz window and polished optical fiber tip (S5LEDM, SM05M05, SM05SMA, Thor Labs). Male/female SMA pairing allowed for LED housing to connect directly to polished fiber assembly.

Dip Coating Method for TiO₂ Deposition

A dispersion of 1% or 2% (10 g/L, 20 g/L) TiO₂ (P90, Evonik) was created utilizing the CEINT protocol. The dispersion solution was nanopure water and the appropriate loading of P90 was added to reach 20 g/L, with no additional chemical addition (pH=4.0-4.5). The solution was sonicated in an immersed sonicator horn and maintained stability for up to 48 hours. Two variations of a dip coating protocol were utilized: (1) extended dip/dry cycling and (2) rapid-enhanced dip/dry cycling. For (1), fibers were immersed in the solution for 24 hours to achieve good electrostatic interaction; fibers were then allowed to dry (24 hours) and rinsed with nanopure water to release any excess TiO₂ prior to analysis or use. In (2), 30 s dip/dry cycling was conducted with a 2% TiO₂ solution for TiO₂ deposition and hot-air drying to allow for rapid processing of the optical fibers.

Sol-Gel Method for TiO₂ Deposition

To functionalize the optical fiber surface, the optical fibers were first sonicated for 30 min in acetone, ethanol and water, respectively, then rinsed with distilled water and dried with a stream of nitrogen gas. Then the optical fibers were immersed in piranha solution (H₂O₂: H₂SO₄=1:3, volume ratio) to generate a hydroxyl-functionalized surface. The functionalized optical fibers were rinsed with water and ethanol, respectively, then immersed into 6 mL of ethanol (200 proof) containing titanium isopropoxide (TTIP, 0.6 ml). After 5 min, the fibers were slowly taken out and exposed to air for another 5 min to allow the hydrolysis of TTIP to generate a layer of TiO₂ precursor. Repeating the dip-coating process resulted in multiple layers of TiO₂ precursor. Optical fibers were dried at 60° C. for 2 h to allow complete hydrolysis, then heated to 500° C. (2° C./min) for 1 h to crystallize the TiO₂ particles. As a control, P25 (1 wt %) instead of TTIP was dispersed into ethanol, and used as precursor solution for dip-coating. The samples were characterized by SEM.

Optical fibers were immersed into the reactor containing a test solution with 4.0 μM methylene blue, as a probe contaminant, in double deionized water at a resistivity above 18.2 MΩ-cm (Millipore Inc.). Direct photolysis experiments were conducted by utilizing a 1 cm uncoated optical fiber to launch 318 nm LED irradiation into the solution. Light intensities emitted from the LED and terminal end of the fiber tips were measured by a radiometer (Avaspec 2048L). MB concentrations were measured by absorbance at 664 nm.

Theoretical Calculations of Light Interactions with Coatings on Optical Fibers

Assessment of the mechanism for light penetration from the optical fiber into the catalyst and surrounding aqueous solution helped determine pathways of photon delivery and anticipated photon-electron conversion yields. With coated photocatalyst thickness and mass as primary variables, mathematical modeling of the photonic penetration depth informed desired experimental coating thicknesses.

Excitation in the fiber photocatalyst system is attributed to evanescent energy emitted from optical fibers. Light reflects along the fiber due to total internal reflection (TIR) provided the input angle is greater than the critical angle (ec):

$\begin{matrix} {\theta_{c} = {\sin^{- 1}\left( \frac{n_{2}}{n_{1}} \right)}} & {{Equation}\mspace{14mu} 1} \end{matrix}$ where n₁ is the index of refraction inside the fiber and n₂ is the index outside the fiber (derived from Snell's law with the refracted angle set to 90°, requires n₂<n₁). During TIR, the boundary conditions of Maxwell's equations result in an imaginary wavenumber (k), which produces a corresponding energy field: k=k _(y) ŷ+k _(x) {circumflex over (x)}=iaŷ+β{circumflex over (x)}  Equation 2 E({circumflex over (r)})=E ₀ e ^(−i(iaŷ+β{circumflex over (x)})) =E ₀ e ^(+ŷ−iβ{circumflex over (x)})  Equation 3 The flow of this energy (E), called an evanescent wave, is parallel to the waveguide surface, while the z component of the wave (perpendicular to the waveguide) falls off exponentially so that only a limited amount of energy is transmitted into the second medium.

$\begin{matrix} {{{E(z)} = {{{E(0)}e^{- \frac{z}{d}}} = {\frac{hc}{\lambda}e^{- \frac{z}{d}}}}};{d = \frac{\lambda}{4\pi\sqrt[2]{{n_{1}^{2}\sin^{2}\theta} - n_{2}^{2}}}}} & {{Equation}\mspace{14mu} 4} \end{matrix}$

This rapidly decaying energy field is dependent on the wavelength of the light (λ), the incident angle inside the waveguide (θ), and both n₁ and n₂. FIG. 8 shows plots of this function in the present system (λ=318 nm) for incident angles 75°, 80°, 85°, and 90° (θ>74.5° due to the numerical aperture of 0.39). The evanescent field energy falls off as a function of distance from the waveguide surface. The solid horizontal line on the graph shows the bandgap energy necessary (3.2 eV) to excite the TiO₂ photocatalyst. The evanescent wave has enough energy to create a photocatalytic exciton in the first ˜10 nm outside the fiber (i.e., thickness of photocatalyst coating), a distance comparable to the primary particle size of the TiO₂. In this region, the energy is above that of the band gap for TiO₂. This modeling suggests that thinner coatings may be more efficient in activating all the TiO₂ on the surface.

TiO₂ Coating Characterization

Based on the theoretical mechanism for optical fiber light-energy transmission, the dependence of photocatalytic performance on coated thickness, length of optical fiber, and applied light intensity was investigated. The dip coating method yielded 0.02 mg TiO₂ on every 7 cm optical fiber for each coating cycle; up to 20 coating cycles were performed. The thickness of the TiO₂ coating layers on the optical fibers increased from 0 nm (uncoated) to 1150±60 nm up to 5 coating cycles, then stayed at about 1150 nm even with more coating cycles. The mass increase on the fiber after five coating cycles was attributed to the filling up of cavities on the TiO₂ coating layers. SEM of sol-gel samples from titanium isopropoxide (TTIP) and P25 precursors confirm more holistic coverage at for five coating cycles compared to one coating cycle, but do not have the compaction observed with water-based dip-coating.

Optimizing Catalyst-Absorbed Light Intensity

For several different 28 cm long optical fibers coated with between 0.02 mg and 0.1 mg of electrostatically attached TiO₂, FIG. 9 shows that higher coated masses of TiO₂ resulted in an increase in light intensity absorbed by TiO₂ from 1.71×10⁻¹² (±5.23×10⁻¹³) Einstein·cm⁻²·s⁻¹ to 5.36×10⁻¹² (±3.33×10⁻¹³) Einstein·cm⁻²·s⁻¹. Light may generate HO·, generate heat (i.e., recombination of electrons and holes), or become scattered. The light intensity absorbed by TiO₂ and the coating thickness followed an attenuating trend, where additional coating cycles did not correspond to increased light flux into the catalyst.

Another set of experiments was conducted with variable optical fiber lengths but a fixed deposited phototcatalyst mass (0.02 mg TiO₂) and resulting fixed thickness of TiO₂. FIG. 10 shows the light intensity absorbed by TiO₂ increased from 7.20×10⁻¹³ (±1.39×10⁻¹)) Einstein·cm⁻²·s⁻¹ to 2.15×10⁻¹² (±2.99×10⁻¹³) Einstein·cm⁻²·s⁻¹ at increasing length of the coated fiber from 7 cm to 28 cm. The light intensity absorbed by TiO₂ exhibited a linear relationship (I=(8×10⁻¹⁴)×Length, R²>0.98) as a function of the optical fiber length (cm). At an added mass of 0.4 mg, the light intensity absorbed by the TiO₂ increased more readily with coated length, from 2.85×10⁻¹² (±7.90×10⁻¹⁴)) Einstein·cm⁻²·s⁻¹ to 5.51×10⁻¹² (±1.14×10⁻¹³) Einstein·cm⁻²·s⁻¹ at 7 cm and 28 cm, respectively.

Quantum Efficiency of the AM-LED-OF System

FIG. 11 shows the transformation kinetics of MB at different UV doses. The degradation of MB followed the pseudo-first order kinetics. Without TiO₂ present in slurry form or attached to the optical fiber (control), less than 5% of the MB degraded over the 4 hour test. Faster MB degradation occurred when TiO₂ was present. For TiO₂ present in the mixed slurry reactor, MB degradation rates increased with higher TiO₂ dosages but plateaued for dosages above 5 mg/L. It is thought that there may be a limited reaction zone where light penetration into the water-TiO₂ slurry occurs and leads to MB degradation. MB degradation rates in the TiO₂ slurry reactor were always slower in experiments with equal TiO₂ mass attached to optical fibers and the same light irradiance. This suggests that the MB degradation by the slurry system was less effective than that by the fibers.

FIG. 11 also shows that the degradation rates of MB by the dip-coated TiO₂ optical fibers at the added mass of 0.2 mg and 1 mg were similar (1%). Although more light was absorbed as the coating layer became thicker as shown in FIG. 9 , the extra light absorbed by the thicker coating layer did not produce additional reactive performance. The thicker coating layer enhanced the light absorption, but it may have created barriers for MB to transfer to inner reactive sites on the TiO₂ coating layer, creating a non-reactive inert TiO₂ coating zone.

An inverse relationship between coating thickness and performance was observed in the sol-gel coated fibers. The kinetic experimental data shown in FIG. 11 is consistent with the theoretical results shown in FIG. 8 , indicating that increasing the thickness of the TiO₂ coating did not increase the photocatalytic degradation rate.

For comparison, the quantum efficiency (QE) of the dip-coated and sol-gel coated fibers and slurry systems at equivalent catalyst doses were calculated as follows:

${{QE} = \frac{- {k\lbrack{MB}\rbrack}}{I_{{ab}\; s}}},$ where k is the pseudo first order reaction rate of MB degradation in different systems, [MB] is the initial methylene blue concentration, and I_(abs) is the light intensity absorbed by the TiO₂ coating layer. Due to the direct absorption of light by MB at 318 nm, photolysis contributes additively to the bleaching of MB. FIG. 12 shows QE for photolysis, various slurry conditions with P25 and P90, and dip-coated or sol-gel coated 7 cm optical fiber with one or five coating cycles (0.2 mg to 1 mg equivalent catalyst mass added). The initial MB concentration was 4 μM, and the reactor volume was 10 mL. Slurry based systems are seen to have marginally higher quantum efficiency (QE) than photolysis alone. In contrast, QE for the coated optical fibers was 3× to 10× greater than photolysis alone. The systems with the highest QE were single dip-coating or single sol-gel coating. The data indicates a higher energy utilization efficiency of the fibers compared to the slurry system. Thus, the UV-LED/TiO₂/optical-fiber system provides a more energy efficient way to remove pollutants when directly compared to a slurry system of equivalent inputs.

Direct coupling of LEDs to photocatalyst coated optical fibers for in situ irradiation of fixed-film photocatalysts has been demonstrated to remove pollutants in water. Enhanced performance of coated fibers compared to equivalent slurry conditions indicates photon-electron/hole conversion yielding oxidation reaction of the methylene blue in a controlled-catalyst delivery configuration. LEDs provide a narrow-wavelength output for irradiation, capable of targeting pollutants via photolysis or photocatalytic mechanisms while decreasing required energy inputs and systemic inefficiency due to heat losses.

Further modifications and alternative embodiments of various aspects will be apparent to those skilled in the art in view of this description. Accordingly, this description is to be construed as illustrative only. It is to be understood that the forms shown and described herein are to be taken as examples of embodiments. Elements and materials may be substituted for those illustrated and described herein, parts and processes may be reversed, and certain features may be utilized independently, all as would be apparent to one skilled in the art after having the benefit of this description. Changes may be made in the elements described herein without departing from the spirit and scope as described in the following claims. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A reactor comprising: a flexible assembly comprising: a first electrode layer comprising a multiplicity of first electrodes positioned between a first proton exchange membrane layer and a second proton exchange membrane layer, wherein each of the first electrodes comprises an optical fiber coated with an electrically conductive, photocatalytic material; a second electrode layer comprising a multiplicity of second electrodes positioned between a third proton exchange membrane layer and a fourth proton exchange membrane layer, wherein each of the second electrodes comprises an optical fiber coated with an electrically conductive, photocatalytic material; and a third electrode layer positioned between and electrically coupled to the first electrode layer and the second electrode layer, wherein the third electrode layer is a flexible electrically conductive material, wherein the flexible assembly is in the form of a sheet.
 2. The reactor of claim 1, wherein the flexible assembly is wound around a porous conduit.
 3. The reactor of claim 2, wherein the porous conduit has a first end and a second end.
 4. The reactor of claim 3, further comprising a water inlet, wherein the water inlet is configured to direct water toward the first end of the porous conduit.
 5. The reactor of claim 4, further comprising a water outlet, wherein the reactor is configured to allow water to flow from the first end of the porous conduit toward the second end of the conduit via gravity.
 6. The reactor of claim 1, further comprising a light source coupled to each of the first electrodes and each of the second electrodes.
 7. The reactor of claim 6, wherein the light source is an artificial light source.
 8. The reactor of claim 7, wherein the light source is a light emitting diode.
 9. The reactor of claim 1, wherein each of the first electrodes and second electrodes is configured to be coupled to a sunlight-collecting device.
 10. The reactor of claim 1, wherein each of the first electrodes and second electrodes is configured to be coupled to a laser.
 11. The reactor of claim 1, wherein each of the first electrodes and second electrodes is coated with an electrically conductive material.
 12. A method of producing hydrogen and oxygen from water, the method comprising: providing water to a reactor comprising: a reservoir; and a flexible assembly positioned in the reservoir, the flexible assembly comprising: a first electrode layer comprising a multiplicity of first electrodes positioned between a first proton exchange membrane layer and a second proton exchange membrane layer, wherein each of the first electrodes comprises an optical fiber coated with an electrically conductive, photocatalytic material; a second electrode layer comprising a multiplicity of second electrodes positioned between a third proton exchange membrane layer and a fourth proton exchange membrane layer, wherein each of the second electrodes comprises an optical fiber coated with an electrically conductive, photocatalytic material; and a third electrode layer positioned between and electrically coupled to the first electrode layer and the second electrode layer, wherein the third electrode layer is a flexible electrically conductive material, wherein the flexible assembly is in the form of a sheet and wound around a porous conduit; providing light into the optical fibers of the first and second electrode layers, thereby yielding photogenerated electrons, wherein the photogenerated electrons flow along the electrically conductive, photocatalytic material of the first and second electrode layers to the third electrode layer; and converting the water into oxygen gas and hydrogen gas.
 13. The method of claim 12, wherein the water flows through the proton exchange membrane layers from a first end of the reactor to a second end of the reactor via gravity.
 14. The method of claim 13, wherein the oxygen gas exits the reactor at the second end of the reactor.
 15. The method of claim 14, wherein some of the water exits the reactor at the second end of the reactor.
 16. The method of claim 13, wherein the hydrogen gas exits the reactor at the first end of the reactor.
 17. The method of claim 16, wherein the hydrogen gas exits the reactor through the porous conduit.
 18. The method of claim 12, wherein a flow of the water across the proton exchange membrane layers provides turbulence, thereby improving evolution of the hydrogen gas.
 19. The method of claim 12, wherein converting the water into oxygen gas and hydrogen gas comprises producing hydrogen at the third electrode layer using the photogenerated electrons. 